Chapter 9 Family and Friends / The Generals / Slave Uprising, 1791

When did Pierre Girard die?

He died on April 27, 1788. Stephen had not learned of his father's death until he had returned to Philadelphia from his voyage to France. Girard did not leave America again for the rest of his life. But at long last he repaid all his debts in Bordeaux. As Pierre’s eldest son, Stephen became the owner of the house where he was born by virtue of the will. It was perhaps this money that he used to settle his debts in France.¹

In later life, Pierre had lost quite a bit of money. Why did he not accept Stephen’s offer of a partnership?

On one hand it was a question of pride. Pierre had given virtually nothing to his oldest son. On the other hand, since his marriage to the wealthy Marie Jeanne, Pierre turned away from the sea and spent his time cultivating the land at Tresse.²

How did Girard deal with the new means of sea travel—the steamboat?

Not at all. All his ships continued under sail. It wasn’t until 1838 that the first steam ship would cross the Atlantic Ocean.

Who was Sophie Fénelon?

Sophie was Girard’s sister. She was married to Jean Fénelon. Some biographers have written that Sophie was mentally insufficient. At one point her father Pierre rescued her from a mental hospital. Sophie was smart in mind and as commercially apt as Stephen or John.³

Did Sophie own a business?

She helped her husband manage the Bordeaux Commission House and it was believed that her ability surpassed that of her husband.  There were several points of conflict between husband and wife.⁴

Did Sophie and Jean have children?

While still married to Jean, they had a son who died in his youth and a daughter, Constance. (The reader will benefit from this information as it will explain the demands Sophie made against Stephen Girard’s will).

We know that Stephen was not close to his brothers and sisters while they were growing up. Was his brother John any different?

Yes. John liked to imitate his brother in giving money to the needy; in this case to his siblings. Being a sensitive man, he might often ask his family how much they loved him. He wanted the reassurance of their love.⁵

Who was Monk?

Monk was the nickname for Stephen’s younger brother— Louis Alexandre. He was called Monk as he was the only son to please his father by taking holy orders.⁶

When did the French Revolution begin?

The French Revolution began on July 14, 1789 with the storming of the Bastille in Paris.

What was the great benefit of selling wheat to France during the French Revolution?

So great was the demand for wheat in France that the entire cargo was marketed before it arrived for forty livres a charge, the government bounty of three livres, fifteen sous to go to the purchaser. The profit margin for the seller—was exceptional.⁷

Was there a corresponding risk?

The destruction of the French Monarchy had thrown the government into complete disorder which affected and discredited the whole commerce of France. The principal cities abroad, such as London, Amsterdam and Cadiz, were loath to negotiate paper in France.⁸

What kind of commercial war began at Le Cap over wheat and flour?

Girard was told that Le Cap was closed to American ships carrying wheat and flour to sell. To counter this action, Girard flew the flag of France and unloaded his cargo.

What other ruses did Girard’s captains use to get around local Haitian regulations?

The captains were told to carry two different bills of lading showing that the cargo was not made up of prohibited items. Sometimes the captain stated that the cargo contained flour and wheat but the vessel was bound for a different destination. ⁹

Was bribing custom officers ever considered?

With increasing frequency, Girard’s captains smuggled goods aboard the Polly. Girard instructed his agents to offer custom house officers a few coins to silence them. Girard, however, was not prone to offer bribes because the cost would invariably escalate.

How did the activation of the US Constitution affect maritime trade for  merchants like Stephen Girard?

Girard was pleased. At last he had only one set of requirements to abide by—no conflicting and confusing state laws to deal with. This made it easier to conduct trade with foreign countries.

Who was Timon Samatan?

He was Girard’s agent in Marseilles. During the Reign of Terror, Samatan was executed on the guillotine simply because he was rich. All his property was confiscated.

Did Girard offer the family his support?

Stephen was quick to let Madame Samatan know he was willing to educate in America any son she wished to send.

Is this how he assisted the Samatan family?

As it turned out, Girard’s help was not necessary. After Robespierre was put to death, the regime changed and all the money and property was returned to the family.

When did representatives of the thirteen states meet formally for the first time?

Beginning in May 1787 representatives from twelve states, all but Rhode Island met in Philadelphia for a Constitutional Convention. George Washington was chosen to head the Virginia delegation.

Were the sentiments about slavery the same for George Washington as they were for Benjamin Franklin?

No. Franklin abhorred the notion of slavery but had a few slaves who either ran off or died in their work. In later life he refused to own slaves. When George Washington was elected President of the United States and moved to Philadelphia, he had the opportunity to free his wife Martha's household slaves. Pennsylvania law required that slave holders moving to Pennsylvania could not keep their slaves beyond the six-month period after arriving. They had to be freed. Instead of freeing the slaves, Washington shipped them back to Virginia just before the time ran out.

Was George Washington a wealthy man?

When he became President of the United States he was one of the richest men in America. Upon marrying Martha Custis, he became very wealthy. He was the owner of 54,000 acres of land—8,000 acres in Mount Vernon.  He owned 100 slaves.

What were the physical attributes of our nation’s first president?

James Thatcher wrote: “His personal appearance was truly noble and majestic, being tall and well proportioned. His look and bearing was that of a man accustomed to respect and being obeyed. George Washington embraced a life like that of the English gentry.” He could easily take his place among monarchs of Europe.

What other attributes did Washington have that would appeal to the American people?

Thomas Jefferson wrote that Washington was the best horseman of his age. He could hunt and ride for up to seven hours without resting and had exceptional stamina.

When Lord Howe arrived in America shortly after the signing of the Declaration of Independence, what significant exchange did Washington have with the famous General?

Howe had sent a letter to George Washington addressing it to “Mr. Washington. Esq.” The letter was not delivered because there was no Mr. Washington in the army. There was, however, a General Washington in the army, a fact that Lord Howe chose to ignore. Washington later explained his position. If Lord Howe had come from London with the authority only to grant pardons, he had come to the wrong place. This attitude of the British was typical of everyone from King George down to the sergeants in the field towards Americans. It was patronizing and disdainful.

On September 15^th 1776, Washington heard the roar of cannon from Kit’s Bay. What had occurred and how did the General react?

Washington went to Kit’s Bay and saw that his troops were in disarray. British warships took positions on Kip’s Bay to provide protection for a flotilla of flat-bottomed boats that ferried 4,000 British soldiers to Manhattan. American forces under Colonel William Douglas put up meager resistance before breaking and running, Washington observed the scene from a hilltop. In anger and frustration he shouted, “Are these the men with which I am to defend America?”

Who was Nathanael Greene?

He was a good-natured Quaker from Rhode Island in whom Washington saw great potential. Although he knew little about the military, at age thirty-three he became the youngest brigadier general in the Continental Army. At Yorktown, Virginia, Greene proved himself to be one of Washington’s most brilliant field commanders.

In 1790, when Girard was forty years old, what was happening in the United States?

The United States Census of 1790 was the first census conducted in the country. It recorded the population of the United States as of Census Day, August 2, 1790, as mandated by Article I, Section 2 of the United States Constitution and applicable laws. In the First Census, the population of the United States was enumerated to be 3,929,214. Congress assigned responsibility for the 1790 census to the marshals of United States judicial districts under an act which, with minor modifications and extensions, governed census taking through 1840. The law required that every household be visited, that the completed census schedules be posted in two of the most public places within each jurisdiction, there to remain for the inspection of all concerned. The aggregate amount of each description of persons for every district  was to be transmitted to the president.

When did the colonies formally become The United States of America?

That took place in 1790 as well. Philadelphia became the capital of the new nation.

What was the catalyst for the slave uprising in San Domingo in 1791?

The catalyst was simply the outrageous conditions of the slaves kept by the French landowners. Learning that the French mainland had been taken by the revolt of thousands of people in Paris, the slaves of the West Indies took heart and began to seize and kill as many white settlers as possible. San Domingo was controlled by the French and had the largest enslaved population in the Caribbean. It had a booming sugar industry that had created the world's richest colony, with half a million enslaved Africans.

Were the conditions unusually harsh?

Slavery here was as harsh as anywhere. The slaves were treated as inhumanely as can be imagined. Many men were forced to sleep in cramped quarters without any ventilation whatsoever. They were beaten for the slightest real or perceived infraction.  In many cases, the food they were given was spoiled garbage which they had to eat or starve. Some owners put tin masks on the slaves, to keep them from chewing sugar cane in the fields. Their overseers were not known to spare the bull whip on their workers.

The arrival of the Polly at Le Cap soon after the three dreadful days of plundering, burning and murder, and her return to Philadelphia with eight and thirty refugees gave rise to a story concerning Girard, which one of his biographers, Mr. Henry Atlee Ingram, thought

necessary to tell and refute. "The year 1791 witnessed the horrible uprising of the slaves in the island of Santo Domingo, and many foreign merchants narrowly escaped sharing in the general massacre by taking refuge on one of Girard's vessels, commanded by Captain Cochran, then in port at Cap Français. Some of these refugees barely escaped with the clothing upon their persons, but others, more successful, saved large quantities of wearing apparel, household furniture, and silver, with which the vessel set sail for Philadelphia, where she arrived safely, loaded with the valuables. It has been said that Girard's fortune was largely increased by the subsequent failure of owners to claim many of these articles, but no reliable evidence has ever been adduced, while both Captain Cochran and Mr. Roberjot, one of the refugee merchants, who succeeded in saving nothing but a valise of valuable papers, vouched personally that all for whom articles could be found had been returned."

 Did the African slaves attack the plantation owners?

Yes. They indiscriminately slaughtered men, women and children— all white people. Those whites who managed to escape said they had never seen such hate in the eyes of the Africans. This insane, blinding anger did not spare any white person in their paths. Their machetes cut through thousands of landowners as they tried to get aboard ships in the port.  Girard had been warned in a letter from his brother John months before that an uprising was inevitable.¹¹


 

How did the Stephen Girard’s agent, Aubert, describe the horrible scenes?

“Hundreds of whites fled to the waterfront to escape the invasion only to be met by the mulattoes, who cut off their retreat. The blacks stormed the city, plundering and setting fire to property and killing many whites. The governor fled for his life alongside hundreds of now penniless refugees.”¹²

How did Girard’s agent attempt to save the jewelry and other valuables belonging to the fleeing slave owners?

Aubert, escaping with his family, had hidden all of the passengers' valuable possessions in barrels of coffee, or under the planks of the deck to protect them if the ship should be boarded once at sea. The captain of the privateer Sally (taken earlier by the British) observed the brig from a distance and decided to take it over. Having escaped the angry slaves on shore, the passengers now faced the destructive crew of privateers at sea.  "They almost demolished the ship in their search for valuables." They found the hidden cargo. "The value of the passengers' property," wrote Aubert, "amounted to about 100,000 gourdes, (£4550) and this loss deprives me of every resource." The formerly confident agent was despondent over his loss. "After 45 years at the Cape, where I accumulated a fortune over 3,000,000 (£140,000), I have been reduced to this! Nothing.”

What was Girard’s reaction to the uprising?

Stephen Girard responded to the first news of the massacre with uncharacteristic concern for his agents. "After such a disaster," he offered, "I will ask you, as a true friend, to wind up your own affairs and mine and take advantage of my Polly if she still be in the harbor."¹³


 

Were the house servants involved in the uprising?

One Frenchman wrote: "When the trouble began we found that our own servants, who are very numerous, would join forces with the brigands and set fire to our houses; but, by the most watchful vigilance both by day and by night, we have escaped their plots. Nevertheless a number of servants were arrested and put to death. Others that we considered suspicious were put in a safe place. As a result of this wise precaution we are now a little less anxious, and may God keep us so for many a day.”

Was Girard’s ship the Polly in San Domingo at the time?

Captain Edger of the Polly had been waiting in port and had been ready to sail for three weeks but when he would sail was impossible to tell, for those who were cleared first were  allowed to depart first.

What cargo did he have aboard?

His load included 42 hogsheads of sugar.

When was the Polly finally released for departure?

On October 7^th, the Polly was allowed to sail after paying heavy duties assessed by the Colonial Assembly and undergoing a rigorous inspection. The rigorous inspection of American vessels practiced by officials on land, as well as by men-of-war, obliges them to truly declare their cargoes.

How long did the rebellion last?

It lasted less than seven weeks and during this time more than two thousand whites had perished in the uprising.

Did Girard profit by the instability and insurrection when the slave-holders of San Domingo fled from the crowds of angry people?

Stephen Girard just happened to have two vessels in that port. The planters rushed aboard with all their wealth and treasures. Many went back to bring more to the ships but several were killed along with their families before they could return. The possessions not claimed in Philadelphia became the property of Girard. In Philadelphia, he did whatever he could to help the refugees from San Domingo.

Did Girard buy more real estate with his windfall from San Domingo?

No. Instead he had several magnificent ships built and decided to enter the China and India trade. This trade contributed greatly to his fortune.

How did John Girard find conditions in the West Indies two years after the uprising?

At the beginning of 1793, John Girard, with whom relations had been mended with his brother, wrote pessimistically: "The country is in a deplorable condition. The law has no force. Conditions are as bad as they were under white control."¹⁴
 

Where did the French families go that succeeded in escaping?

Many came to the United States. Stephen Girard gave financial assistance to the refugees that came to Philadelphia.¹⁵

Did these circumstances allow Girard to devote sufficient time to his business?

 In 1780, circumstances made trade with New Orleans and San Domingo very profitable. He promptly engaged in it and in two years had doubled his worth. His personal tragedies during the years 1790-93 were followed by general tragedy for the city of Philadelphia—an outbreak of a yellow fever epidemic.¹⁶

Chapter 9 Notes

1. Wildes, Lonely Midas, 76-83.
2. Ibid., 83.
3. Ibid., 228-229.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid., 324.
6. Ibid., 228.
7. Wilson, Stephen Girard, 98.
8. John's Letter to Stephen, 1789. Girard, Stephen. The Papers of Stephen Girard.
9. McMaster, Life and Times, 326.
10. Wildes, Lonely Midas, 135.
11. Ibid., 192.
12. Wilson, Stephen Girard, 114.
13. Richard G. Miller, “The Federal City, 1783-1800” in  Philadelphia: A Three Hundred Year History, Russell Frank Weigley, Nicholas B. Wainwright, and Edwin Wolf, contributors. (New York: Norton, 1983),188. 
14. Hubbard, Stephen Girard, 56.
15. James Parton, “Stephen Girard and His College,” in Famous Americans of Recent Times, (1867; Project Gutenberg, 2004), www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/12971/pg12771.html.
16. Ibid., 56.

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