Chapter 10 Outbreak of Yellow Fever, 1793

What caused the yellow fever epidemic that devastated Philadelphia in 1793?

Since many refugees had been infected, it was assumed that the fever came with them from the West Indies. Girard noted that a stevedore fell sick while unloading the Polly. He was immediately purged and bled but his condition grew worse and died.  According to biographer Wildes, Frenchmen such as Girard were accused of giving housing to people coming from San Domingo who may have been infected.

How was yellow fever described?

It was sometimes called the “black sickness” because of the color of the vomit, due to the amount of blood that was thrown up. It would kill about five thousand people in 1793.¹

How did Hubbard describe Girard’s courage during the epidemic?

“When pestilence settled on the city like a shadow, and death had marked the doorposts of more than half the homes in the city with the sign of silence, Girard did not absolve himself by drawing a check and sending it to a committee by mail. Not he! He asked himself: ‘What would Franklin have done under these conditions?’ And he answered the question by going to the pest house, doing for the stricken, the dying and the dead what the pitying Christ would have done had He been on earth.”

Why did Girard take on such a difficult and dangerous task during the yellow fever epidemic?

Stephen Simpson wrote, “The yellow fever epidemic of 1793 excited all the energies of his mind, and brought into full play the latent benevolence of his heart. Stephen Girard and his companions stood forward in the shape of ministering angels to provide asylum for the sick. When Girard made a proffer of his services, it was not merely to aid by his counsel or cooperate by his money, in alleviating the calamity of his fellow citizens, but was to undertake in person the most laborious and loathsome duties.” ²

Why was the name “yellow fever” given to this illness?

The liver, kidneys and heart were affected which turned the skin yellow.

What were the conditions of the hospital where the infected patients stayed?

Prior to Girard’s arrival, the conditions of the hospital on Bush Hill were deplorable. It was dirty, badly regulated, crowded and poorly supplied.

How many experienced nurses were available to care for the sick?

None. Nurses couldn’t be hired at any price. They fled thinking merely being near the hospital would bring them certain death.

What did the hospital committee do for the sick?

The committee held a meeting of people whose loved ones had been contaminated asking for volunteers to work for the patients. The committee was astonished and pleased when two wealthy men in the crowd raised their hands. The first to volunteer was Stephen Girard and the second was Peter Helm. The record shows a statement by a committee member, Matthew Carey, about Girard: “…sympathizing with the wretched situation of the sufferers at Bush Hill, voluntarily and unexpectedly offered himself as a manager to superintend that hospital.”³

How did Girard divide the work for Helm and himself?

Girard took for himself the inside of the hospital— the more dangerous of the tasks and had Helm take on the outside.⁴

How did Arey describe the risks that Girard and Helm took in caring for the afflicted?

These men performed “the most loathsome duties … and the only reward possible was a nameless grave upon the heights of Bush Hill.”

How long did this difficult task last?

For sixty days, Girard and Helm took care of all the people in their charge.

Girard gave generously of his time and financial support to the afflicted.⁵

Did Girard become infected with yellow fever?

At the height of the epidemic, he felt a fever coming on but he managed to control and eradicate it with what he called “lavage” or constant washings. He had put himself at serious risk during this epidemic. While many in the city with the means to escape fled the city limits for a safer environment, Girard stayed to care for the sick and dying. ”I shall accordingly be very busy for a few days and if I have the misfortune to be overcome by the fatigue of my labors I shall have the satisfaction of having performed a duty which we owe to one another.”  He managed to have a mansion converted into a hospital. When the outbreak subsided, The City Hall of Philadelphia hailed him as a hero.⁶

How did Philadelphia’s Mayor Clarkson attempt to purify the air during the 1793 yellow fever epidemic?

At the suggestion of the College of Physicians, the mayor had the militia fire off blasts from a small canon. He also suggested that people carry camphor in their clothing.

Where did the disease seem to be most concentrated?

The epidemic seemed to center around Water Street. People believed that a pile of rotting coffee that had been dislodged from a cart was causing people on Water Street to get sick.

Who made the suggestion to Mayor Clarkson to have the streets cleaned of dead animals and garbage?

Stephen Girard whose house was on Water Street made several requests that City Hall have the streets cleaned. The flies swarmed around rotting dogs, cats and rats in the street.

What were some of Peter Helm’s functions at the improvised hospital on Bush Hill?

Helm who was a barrel maker by trade was handy with tools and helped with the construction of coffins for the dead that had to be removed for burial. When the death rate became too high, not all the bodies were given a coffin but were picked up by a designated wagon after sundown. Helm was also responsible for procuring housing for the newly hired nurses, and other staff members nearby.

Was Peter Helm not afraid of becoming sick with yellow fever?

Unlike Girard who had a scientific hypothesis for believing he was not in danger of contagion, Helm was a deeply religious man who relied on the Lord to protect him.

When was yellow fever classified as an aborviral disease?

It was not until 1900, that an army team of officers led by Walter Reed were able to discern that the fever came from the bite of a female mosquito.

Were most attempts at healing the sick ineffectual?

Yes. Doctors knew very little about this disease. Without understanding the problem, they resorted to purging and bleeding and often amputation. Doctors were often the cause of early death.

How did Philadelphia’s population and businesses deal with the outbreak?

Half the population fled the city. The others remained in their houses. Most of the churches, the Great Coffee House, the library were closed. Of the four newspapers, only one remained open. To ward off the sickness, people smoked tobacco; others chewed garlic, or carried bags of camphor in pockets or around their necks. No one offered to shake hands.⁷

In the aftermath of the 1793 epidemic, did those people who had contracted yellow fever have any recurring symptoms?

There is no evidence that there were any recurring symptoms of the illness beyond the cold months of winter.⁸

What was the death toll of this epidemic?

From August 1st 1793 through November 9^th, 1793, in a population of twenty-five thousand, (many residents were not counted because they would not return to the city until much later) there were four thousand and thirty one burials from the fever.⁹

During the height of the yellow fever epidemic, the dead had to be disposed of quickly. How was this done?

Every night, a horse-drawn carriage circulated through the streets. The call was made to bring out the dead.¹⁰

What was Girard’s overall opinion of doctors?

It had often been said that Girard fancied himself as a sensible country doctor. He was quoted as saying: “I consider myself as competent as any (doctor) in the United States.”  Salt was Girard’s favorite prescription for sores and cuts.

Girard disliked doctors and regarded them as ignorant imbeciles who killed more people than they healed. In his opinion, doctors were only good at bone setting. Girard was one of the first to speak out against bloodletting or bleeding. He criticized Dr. Benjamin Rush for weakening his patients by bleeding them. Many of them did not survive.¹¹

How did Girard look back on his experience at Bush Hill?

Girard is quoted as saying: “Would you believe it, my friend, that I have visited as many as fifteen sick people in a day? And what will surprise you much more; I have lost only one patient, an Irishman, who would drink a little. I do not flatter myself that I have cured one single person; but in my quality of Philadelphia physician, I have been very moderate, and that not one of my confreres has killed fewer than myself.”¹²

Who was the young man who came to stay briefly with Girard and was struck down with yellow fever?

Girard wrote most tenderly showing his affection for the young man, Peter Seguin, and his deep distress at the illness which had overtaken him. Girard’s letters indicated that he had watched all night by the bedside of this young man and no more tender solicitude for a member of one's own family would have been possible than Girard showed to one in need although Seguin was a comparative stranger.¹³

What was the daily death toll from yellow fever at the height of the epidemic?

By October 11, 1793, the daily death toll was one hundred nineteen.

When did the fever begin to wane?

By the first of December, the plague had started to subside.

Had President Washington visited Philadelphia during the epidemic?

He went to Philadelphia on November 10^th and rode through the near empty streets but he determined that it was too soon to take up residence again. In December, he returned to stay.

Had yellow fever returned to Philadelphia in subsequent years?

Yes. The epidemic returned in 1797, another in 1798, a third in 1802, and a fourth in 1820. In each of these new crises, Stephen Girard was a leader in preventive measures and in the care of those stricken.¹⁴

Philadelphia during the summer of 1802 was again visited by Yellow Fever. Early in June a vessel called the San Domingo Packet reached the Lazaretto, was detained there twenty-one days and towards the close of the month came up to the Vine Street wharf. A week later a carpenter, working on a ship nearby, was taken down with yellow fever and died, and in less than ten days eight others met the same fate. This led the Aurora to declare that it was certain a fever as virulent as that of '93, '97, '99 had broken out at Vine Street near the San Domingo Packet, and to demand that the sick be instantly removed from the well. Thereupon the Board of Health made a visit to Northern Liberties, reported that all the sick had been removed and forbade all communication with the infected district.

During a few days no new cases were detected and the Board announced that the fever had subsided; but July had not ended when the Aurora asserted that nineteen cases had appeared in the Northern Liberties, accused the Board of keeping the new outbreak quiet, and again demanded the removal of the sick from the well. Once more the Board visited the infected region, bounded by Vine, Callow hill, Front and Water Streets, reported they found but four persons sick with fever of a malignant kind, and assured the citizens that the rumors were greatly exaggerated and that notes had been left at the houses in the infected district recommending families to remove to the country as the best way to stop the spread of the fever. If they had "no retreat," the Board would endeavor to find one. The fever soon spread to the city, whereupon the Aurora cried out that since the sick were not removed from the well, the well must remove themselves. The Board admitted that the fever was "very malignant" and entreated all who could to leave at once. The Editor of the Aurora then published an address to his "Fellow Citizens," told them there was "no remedy but in flight or frost," and announced the removal of his newspaper to Frankford. Flight now became general; so many went.

During the various yellow fever epidemics, did Girard’s business activities suffer?

 From 1783 to 1800, Girard shipped 175 types of items, from 25 locations, on 93 different vessels. These were some ships he built or owned between 1791 and 1810: China Packet, North America, Superb, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Voltaire, and Good Friends.

Who was J. H. Roberjot?

In 1794, this young man approached Girard for employment as a bookkeeper. Girard told him to improve his English and come back to see him. He did and got the job. Thirty-four years later, he was still working for Girard but in more important functions as a trusted business agent.¹⁵

What was Girard’s estimated worth over the years of his accumulated wealth?

 Late in life, an inventory of his estate revealed that he still owned four ships; namely, Helvetius, North America, Rousseau, and another whose name was not mentioned.  Owning and leasing so many ships permitted Girard to expand his business to trade throughout the world.  Marvin W. McFarland, who studied the Girard ledgers, states that by 1781 Girard's fortune was between fifty and sixty thousand dollars.  Although the annual volume of his business rose to about $1.5 million in 1794, he was wealthy but not yet a millionaire.  He estimated that in 1795 he was worth about $250,000, a very considerable fortune for the times.¹⁶

What were some of the items he shipped during this period?

Girard shipped and imported grain, wine, liquors, oils, tobacco, cloth, cheese, nails, sugar, coffee, cocoa, meats, and other necessary staples, using many agents in different ports to obtain the best local prices.  He paid these agents well to protect his interests, but his papers include many letters scolding the agents for not getting what he considered reasonable prices.  Girard's profits from shipping soared between 1790 and 1815, but international conflicts frequently interfered with his ventures.  The French and the English were intermittently at war with each other and Girard's ships and cargoes were often confiscated.¹⁷

What important election took place in 1800?

The election of 1800 between John Adams and Thomas Jefferson was an emotional and hard-fought campaign. Each side believed that victory by the other would ruin the nation.

Federalists attacked Jefferson as an un-Christian deist whose sympathy for the French Revolution would bring similar bloodshed and chaos to the United States. On the other side, the Democratic-Republicans denounced the strong centralization of federal power under Adams's presidency. Republicans specifically objected to the expansion of the U.S. Army and Navy, the attack on individual rights in the Alien and Sedition Acts, and new taxes and deficit spending used to support broadened federal action.

Why did the United States want to go to war with France?

In 1797, the United States nearly went to war with France, because it harassed American ships trading with England.  In 1805, England became master of the seas by defeating the French and Spanish fleets at Trafalgar. They blockaded Europe and often confiscated American merchant ships.¹⁸

Quoting from a book Philadelphia in the War of 1812, "The second war with England, toward which the country had been gravitating for many years, was brought very closely home to Philadelphia by reason of their important shipping interest.  Large sums of money were invested in, and a considerable portion of the population was directly or indirectly sustained by, overseas commerce.  The various embargoes of England and France during the Napoleonic Wars, the general invasion of the rights of neutral powers, and the impressment of their seamen by the belligerents, led to a feeling of great resentment in the United States^."19

How did Girard manage to make a profit with ships being taken by privateers and pirates?

The constant interference with shipping caused a scarcity of some items, and Girard's profits were huge when his ships did succeed in getting through the blockades.  When England continued to harass American ships, Girard anticipated a conflict.  In 1807, he started liquidating his overseas merchandise and collecting his foreign debt.  The harassment of ships led to the War of 1812 and to Girard's decision to enter the banking business. The Bank of the United States, which Girard told Mr. Curwen had been refused a charter by the Legislature of Pennsylvania in 1812, was created by Act of Congress in 1791, at a time when there were but three banks in all the United States. The life of the charter was twenty years. At the close of this period, 1811, a memorandum from the President and Directors of the Bank, of whom Girard was one, praying for renewal of the charter, was presented to Congress; but it was not granted, and on March 3rd, 1811, the Bank closed its doors.²⁰

Why did Girard decide to bring his European assets home to the US in 1811?

His assets in Great Britain and on the European continent were in jeopardy with Napoleon’s armies running wild and England becoming more aggressive.

When did Girard reach the two million dollar mark in net worth?

According to Mercantile Papers, 31 December 1821, Girard became a multimillionaire in 1811.

As his wealth grew, what single concern occupied Girard’s mind, turning him into an activist with a cause?

Biographer George Wilson points out that Girard was concerned with the rights of Americans trading on the high seas. Girard was not successful with getting the first two Federalist Presidents, Washington and Adams to take a strong position against Great Britain, the most threatening nation. Girard continued his protests during the administrations of Jefferson and Madison.

Did Professor Wagner mention Girard’s role in supporting the US government during the War of 1812?

Yes. In Lecture 5, he stated: “During the whole of the War of 1812, Girard’s bank was the very right hand of the national credit. While other banks were contracting, it was Girard who stayed the panic.”²¹

Some historians credit David Parish, who made a fortune speculating in silver and land in upstate New York, with the 1813 Government bailout. Although he owned lots of land, he was nearly bankrupt at the time.

How did Girard sum up the results of the War of 1812?

In a letter to his correspondent, Morton, in 1815, Girard wrote: “The peace which has taken place between this country and England will consolidate forever our independence and insure our tranquility.²²

Chapter 10 Notes

    1. Wilson, Stephen Girard, 119.
    2. Herrick, Stephen Girard, Founder, 47.

    3. Louise Stockton, The Continent, An Illustrated Weekly Magazine, (Philadelphia: Our Continent Publishing Company), 1883. 

    4. Powell, Bring Out Your Dead, 11. 

5. Herrick, Stephen Girard, 40. 
6. J.H. Powell, Bring Out Your Dead, 11.
7. Herrick, Stephen Girard, Founder 40.
8. Powell, Bring out Your Dead, 146.
9. Wildes, Lonely Midas, 279.
10. Stephen Girard letter to Bentalou, Oct.1793, Girard, The Papers of Stephen Girard.
11. Herrick, Stephen Girard, Founder, 32.
12. Ibid., 48.
13. McMaster, Life and Times, 221.
14. Thomas J. DiFilippo, “Girard, A Man to Remember,” in Stephen Girard, The Man, His College and Estate, 2nd ed. (1999,) 1-22. http://www.girdweb.com/girard/download.htm.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. McMaster, Life and Times, 239.
20. William Wagner, “Life and Times of Stephen Girard, Lecture 5,” (Philadelphia: Wagner Free Institute of Science, n.d.).

     21. Henry W. Arey, The Girard College and its Founder: Containing the Biography of Mr. Girard, the History of the Institution, Its Organization and Plan of Discipline, with the Course of Education, Forms of Admission of Pupils, Description of the Buildings, &c. &c. and the Will of Mr. Girard, (Philadelphia, C. Sherman, 1856), 19-20. Arey was secretary of Girard College when he wrote this biography, published twenty-one years after Girard’s death. Arey is a primary source for matters on the founding, the development and history of Girard College.

      22. Simpson, Biography of Stephen Girard, 110.

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